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Civil Defense: The Swiss Approach
Switzerland is famous for having a strong civil defense program. The Swiss, for example, provide shelter space for virtually the whole population, and are often cited as a model for other countries. Switzerland is an open society that has always made its civil defense information readily available, including in English to Americans, online at the Embassy of Switzerland in Washington, D.C., website (www.swissemb.org – click on Military & Defense link). Indeed, according to a 1987 source, “Nothing prevents the casual tourist from verifying the presence and nature of Swiss shelters or picking up pamphlets in supermarkets. In some ways information is even more available in Switzerland than in the United States.” (1)
1. Profile of Switzerland Switzerland is a federal state with 26 “cantons” (states) and 2,800 municipalities (capital is Berne). It is landlocked by five neighbors: Austria, France, Italy, Liechtenstein, and Germany. Its population is 7.4 million (95 th worldwide) and its size 16,000 square miles (twice the size of New Jersey, 133 rd worldwide). The size of its economy size is $309.5 billion gross domestic product (17 th worldwide) and its GDP/capita is $41,800 (4 th worldwide). Its workforce is divided among 1. services (banking, insurance, tourism) (3.96 million workers, 72% of workforce); 2. industry and commerce (pharmaceuticals, machinery) 24%; and 3. farming (4%) Its people are Roman Catholic (42%), Protestant (35%), Muslim (4%), other (8%), and no religion (11%). The four official Swiss languages are German (64% of population), French (20%), Italian (6%), Romansh (1%), and other (9%). 2. The Swiss Military Switzerland has a long tradition of neutrality, which has been a permanent state of affairs since the Treaty of Paris in 1815. For example, the country does not belong to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) or any other military alliance, and only in 2002 decided to join the United Nations because its people finally reconciled their fears that membership would prejudice their valued principle of neutrality. But, as Harrell writes, “the Swiss never abandoned the fine military tradition that made them so sought after for centuries as mercenaries, and neutrality for the Swiss means armed neutrality.” (p. 114-115) In their own words, the Swiss say that their “neutrality is distinguished by three characteristics: it is self-imposed, permanent and armed.” (2) The Swiss Constitution states that “every Swiss male is obliged to do military service.” Every Swiss male has to serve for at least 260 days in the armed forces. Women are accepted on a voluntary basis but are not drafted. The current strength of the Swiss Armed Forces totals 140,000 men and women (which includes 20,000 for basic training) with an additional 80,000 as reserve. In the event of war, up to 220,000 men and women can be mobilized. The Swiss military budget in 1987 was 2.3% of the gross national product (compared to Japan, 0.9%; Canada, 1.9%; Italy, 2.6%; West Germany, 3.6%; U.S., 6%; and U.S.S.R., 12%). The current Swiss military budget is 1% of the gross domestic product ($3.53 billion), compared with the U.S. military budget of 3.7% ($400 billion, FY 2005 estimate). (3) 3. The Origin and Evolution of Swiss Civil Defense (1930 – 1980s) The Swiss civil defense began in 1934, when the “Passive Defense Troops” were organized. The modern era began in 1959, when the majority of voters voted into the constitution a civil defense article, and the parliament in 1962 passed a federal civil defense law requiring compulsory civil defense service from every health male aged 20 to 60 not drafted in to the military, and allowing women over 16 to volunteer. Registration began in 1965 at about the same time that a federal law started an ambitious shelter-building program and set up a Federal Office of Civil Protection. Not satisfied that the Swiss civil defense program adequately addressed the rapidly evolving threats of modern warfare, in 1966 the Department of Justice and Police convened a Committee for Civil Defense to study the matter, and subsequently produced in 1971 “The 1971 Conception of the Swiss Civil Defense.” (Harrell, p. 115) This document, approved by the Federal Office of Civil Protection and Parliament, became the cornerstone of Swiss civil defense and served to modernize civil-defense laws. The Swiss reasoned that even when tensions were cooling between heavily-armed Eastern and Western alliances, “‘conflicts can always contain a germ of nuclear war’…Particularly since a shelter-building program takes decades to complete, they felt that preparations should be made continuously.” (p. 115)
Harrell points out that one of the main conclusions drawn from the 1971 Conception of the Swiss Civil Defense study was its heavy focus on protecting the public. Because relocation was not considered an option (see below), authorities committed all resources to providing the whole population with (very expensive) blast and fallout shelters, the cost of which consumed most of the Swiss civil-defense budget. “In arguing for shelters rather than evacuation, the report states that, ‘Modern methods of mass destruction, especially their employment with the element of surprise, practically forbid in our country the possibility of evacuating the population into ‘safe’ areas. The deployment of arms of massive destruction from the air or from a neighboring country can endanger all regions of our country, even the thinly populated areas. It would not be possible to guarantee the transfer of the population and their victualling at the reception centers, during War operations. Furthermore, such evacuation might hinder important actions undertaken within the scope of national defence…evacuations on a large scale are ineffectual and even dangerous for Switzerland.’ (p. 116) Switzerland had the unhappy experience in World War II in which it was bombed by mistake, and fully understood that this could happen again, only this time with nuclear weapons. The 1971 report presented the following guiding principles for Swiss civil defense thinking: 1. All inhabitants of the country should have access to a shelter space. 2. Although one must “forget the old idea of being able to give sufficient warning of attack”, a crisis period is regarded as likely before an actual nuclear attack. During this period there would be “preventive and gradual occupation of shelters.” 3. Shelter should provide for a stay of up to several weeks. 4. The shelters should be of simple and sturdy design. 5. The population will not be evacuated. 6. There should be diversity of construction plans, the better to cope with unforeseeable developments affecting the efficacy of any given design. 7. Absolute protection is impossible (thus shelters provided a measure of protection—1-3 atmospheres of overpressure) against blast and fallout, but could not be expected to withstand a direct hit). 8. There should be a great deal of flexibility in civil defense to cope with all possible threats, including natural disasters and other emergencies (the idea of dual-use of materials and installations). 9. The civil defense program requires careful financial planning. (Harrell, p. 116) By 1981, 75% of the inhabitants of Switzerland had access to fully protected shelter spaces, and 100% had at least makeshift shelter. All of the shelters were to be completed by the 1990s. The quality of Swiss shelter is renowned. According to British-born American physicist,Freeman John Dyson, “The quality of Swiss shelters is even more impressive than their quantity…Swiss shelters are massive reinforced-concrete structures built into the foundations of building.” (p. 117) Harrell noted that according to the Swiss “Federal Civil Protection Office, the typical shelter is in a corner of a below-ground basement, is built of reinforced concrete with a 40 cm-thick ceiling, and has a ventilating system and dust filter. Switzerland has developed several designs of shelters of all sizes, both public and private, as well as designs of protected command posts and the like...Apparently almost all Swiss housing comes with a basement.” (p. 117)
According to figures available to Harrell in 1982, the Swiss had completed building 1,000 (of 2,000) protected command posts, 570 (of 1,500) preparation facilities, and underground first-aid stations and hospitals. Preparation facilities are spaces for emergency distribution of material and equipment. The underground hospitals were usually built in conjunction with ordinary peacetime hospitals. Figures available in 1982 showed that the Swiss had completed construction of over 78,000 (of 130,000 planned) protected hospital beds, 715 first aid posts, 279 first-aid stations (which contain pharmaceutical stores, and operation and morgue rooms), and 97 emergency hospitals and operating rooms. Since the Swiss do not plan to be a primary combatant in a nuclear war, these facilities are not built with the expectation of their use to protect critical military industry. How in the 1980s did Switzerland compare with other countries in its per capita expenditures for civil defense? Harrell provides the following figures: Table 1. Per capita expenditures for civil defense (circa 1980s)
4. Swiss Civil Defense Today The following information is from the Swiss civil defense site at: http://www.bevoelkerungsschutz.admin.ch/internet/bs/en/home/themen/Verbundsystem.html (accessed August 4, 2005). Switzerland 's national interests “ Switzerland's national interests determine the civil protection security
policy mission. Article 2 of the Federal Constitution clearly states that the
Swiss Confederation protects the freedom and the rights of the people, and
the independence and security of the country. This includes fostering the common
good, and the internal cohesion and cultural variety of the country, promoting
equal opportunities for the citizens wherever possible, and ensuring the sustainable
conservation of vital resources.” “The mission of civil protection is to protect the population and its vital resources in the event of disasters, emergencies and armed conflict. Civil protection provides management, protection, rescue and relief, and contributes to limiting damage and coping with it. To fulfill its mission, civil protection assumes the following tasks:
The Swiss identify “disasters, emergencies, and terrorist attacks” as the main hazards Switzerland faces today. Their modern and high-tech society is more vulnerable than before. The Swiss view the likelihood of occurrence of a civil incident as high and one that may appear without any or only a brief prior warning period. An updated “Civil Protection Concept” was adopted by the Swiss government on October 17, 2001 and, like earlier concepts, is the basis for the corresponding law on civil protection. “Civil defense in Switzerland today is an integrated management, protection, rescue and relief system. The five organizational partners in the process, police, fire services, health services, technical services and P&S (protection and support), are in charge of their specific tasks, and provide mutual support. The Swiss authorities reason that joint management ensures coordinated planning and preparation, and operational command in case of deployment.” (quote from the Swiss embassy website). On 1st January 2002, the Federal Council enacted the new “Federal Law on Civil Protection and Protection and Support” (BZG), which the federal parliaments subsequently passed on October 4, 2002 with only one dissenting vote. A citizens’ initiative request, making use of their statutory right, resulted in a referendum on the BZG , which, on May 18, 2003, 80.6% of the Swiss population voted in favor of the new law. The law commits to compulsory training for “protection and support duty” all men of Swiss nationality between the ages of 20 and 40 who are fit for protection & support service (except military or civilian conscripts). Women can volunteer beginning at age 20. Basic training involves at least two or three weeks in certain functions, and refresher courses every year. “In the event of an urgent need, protection & support conscripts may be summoned to carryout their service in the protection & support administration.” Editor’s Note: The U.S. and the Swiss contrast on their approaches to civil defense, e.g., the U.S. Congress has long resisted building shelters (by not appropriating funds), while the Swiss are fervent believers in sheltering to maximal capacity, including building underground hospitals (usually underneath ground hospitals). The U.S. has used its weapons arsenal as a strategic deterrent to any country thinking of attacking the U.S. homeland with nuclear weapons, while the neutral Swiss, who do not plan to be in any war, prepare for the potential of receiving nuclear blast or fallout because of an accidental bombing on their homeland, or bombings between powers above Switzerland or in the countries surrounding Switzerland. The most obvious change since Harrell’s work in the 1980s is the potential for international (and domestic) terrorists to import and detonate nuclear weaponry and radiological dispersal devices on U.S. soil among civilian populations. The difficult challenge to the U.S. Department of Homeland Security today is to figure out how to defend against that possibility. Sources: 1. Evans M. Harrell: “Civil Defense in Other Countries” in “Civil Defense: A Choice of Disasters,” Eds.: John Dowling, Evans M. Harrell. American Institute of Physics. New York, 1987, pp. 105-124. The American Institute of Physics (AIP) is a 501(c)(3) membership corporation chartered in New York State in 1931 for the purpose of promoting the advancement and diffusion of the knowledge of physics and its application to human welfare. Its mission is to serve physics, astronomy, and related fields of science and technology by serving its member societies and their associates, individual scientists, educators, research and development leaders, and the general public with programs, services and publications. See: http://www.aip.org/aip/; accessed August 4, 2005. 2. “Swiss Neutrality: Definition and characteristics” at: http://www.eda.admin.ch/sub_dipl/e/home/thema/intlaw/neutr.html. Accessed August 4, 2005. 3. “Military of the United States” at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_military; accessed August 4, 2005. |
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ensures that the public is informed of hazards, protective possibilities and
measures.
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warns and alerts the population, and issues instructions on how it should act. 
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provides management. 
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coordinates the preparations and deployment of the partner organization.
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ensures readiness appropriate to the time and situation, and 'build-up' when
required.”
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