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Abd-El Kader and the French Conquest of Algeria (1830-1848)
Map showing Barbary States, including Algiers, and France. Source::
http://66.70.254.100/work/samples/tripoli/BigMap.jpg;: accessed December 20, 2007. Ascension of Louis-Philippe, King of the French Parisians responded predictably to the King’s slap by vicious rioting in the streets. King Charles X abdicated and, fearing for his life, fled the country. The much beloved French General Marquis de Lafayette (1757-1834), General George Washington’s close colleague during the American Revolution, lent his support to Louis-Philippe, Duc d’Orleans (1773-1850) as the “the best of all republics” on July 31, 1830. On August 7, 1830, French banker Jacques Laffitte (1767-1844), a strong advocate for a constitutional monarchy and president of the Chamber of Deputies, read the declaration of the Chamber, which nominated Louis-Philippe as France’s new King. When Laffitte finished reading the declaration, the Duc d’Orleans accepted the Crown, stating that he preferred the title “King of the French” to “King of France”.  King Louis-Philippe and his four sons at Versailles (wearing red sashes) in a painting by Vernet. Source:
http://www.latribunedelart.com/images/Horace_Vernet_-_Louis_Philippe_et_ses_fils_small.JPG; accessed December 20, 2007. The new “Citizen-King” Louis-Philippe was far from a state of exhilaration about his new title and role. He carefully hid from all but his most trusted family and friends his “dislike [of] those who had been instrumental in setting him on the throne, and who, under the cloak of ‘liberty, fraternity, and equality’, were seeking their own interest only, namely, the bourgeoisie. He knew their quasi goodwill to him to be so much sheer hypocrisy, and perhaps he and they were too much alike in some respects, in their love of money for the sake of hoarding it.” (4) Nevertheless, he governed the best he could while raising a brood of nine children with wife Marie Amelie, daughter of the sister of the unfortunate beheaded Marie Antoinette. One of the new king’s many issues was managing the French-Algerian drama between 1830 and his own abdication in 1848. King Louis-Philippe Creates the French Foreign Legion On March 9, 1831, King Louis-Philippe signed a royal ordinance to create a legion of foreigners to serve outside of France. He named the new formation Legion Etrangere (Foreign Legion). Veteran French General Soult (1769-1851) in his role as Minister of War under Louis-Philippe had thought of the idea of a French Foreign Legion as a means to clear the streets of Paris of unemployed mercenary soldiers, “notably the Swiss Guards and the Regiment of Hohenlohe.” (6) The soldiers “begged, brawled, drank, molested passersby, and were generally a threat to law and order,” writes Roffe. “Only eight months on his…throne, the King [Louis-Philippe] could not afford to have this trouble-hungry pool of malcontents in his capital, ripe for the approaches and manipulations of his enemies. If they could be drafted to Algeria they would be well out of the way, and high casualties and poor conditions would not be as politically explosive among mercenaries as among the husbands, brothers, and sons of Frenchwomen,” argues Roffe. (5) Within days of the announcement of the nascent French Foreign Legion, the recruiting center at Langres in northeast France was busy as “ex-soldiers, foreign transients, criminals on the run and gullible would-be colonists who recruiters promised land in Algeria” joined up. (4) When French local authorities tried to unload undesirable French citizens into the Foreign Legion, King Louis-Philippe issued a hasty supplementary to his original ordinance, which forbade any Frenchmen from joining. Thus, the first Europeans to move en masse to the land of Algeria were a “motley collection of humanity”, men who were “simply unloaded on the quayside” in Algiers without “uniforms, equipment, organization or discipline”. (5) Swiss Colonel Christoph Stoffel (1780-1842) weeded out misfits and organized the remaining men by nationality into seven battalions. Former Swiss Guards and Hohenlohe Regiment comprised the 1st Battalion; Swiss and Germans, the 2nd and 3rd Battalions; Spanish, the 4th Battalion; Italians and Sardinians the 5th Battalion; Belgians and Dutch, the 6th Battalion; and Poles, the 7th Battalion. In addition, each battalion had an extra Polish company. (5) The battalions spread out from Algiers to establish a shaky foothold in population centers, such as Oran to the west and Bone to the east. “The reputation of the Legion spread alarmingly”, notes Roffe, as they “would beat up officers as soon as look at them…Many voices called for the abandonment of the whole exercise, but for some reason—probably apathy—the Legion remained on the rolls, and the recruits came in at a steady rate. The strength initially 3,000 rose to 5,000 and stabilized at that point.” (5) Local beys, owing nominal allegiance to Constantinople and the Ottoman Empire, defended their thrones in population centers through the efforts of units of Turkish janissaries, i.e., soldiers in an elite guard organized in the 14th century. The local beys, according to Roffe, were often European or Arab adventurers. (6) As the number of French in Algiers increased, questions on the “supreme authority” emerged. Was the provisional commander-in-chief or a civil attendant the supreme authority? For example, did Monsieur Genty de Bussi rule his superior General Voirol, or vice versa? Both of these individuals ended up leaving Algiers, which led in 1833 to a commission in September 1833 sent to Algiers to assess the status of France’s activities there. The group determined that the honour and interest of France commanded it to retain its possession on the northern coast of Africa. [Italics in original.] On the 22nd of July, 1834, appeared an ordinance [from King Louis-Philippe] committing the command, civil and military, to a governor-general, under the control of the minister of war; it made the command of the troops subordinate to the authority of the governor-general; appointed special chiefs to preside over each department of the service; and called the regency of Algiers, French possessions in the north of Africa. [Italics in original.] (7) Abd-el Kader: Defender of Arabs One of the reasons King Louis-Philippe clarified civil and military organization in “the north of Africa” was the gallant and redoubtable Abdul-el-Kader (1808-1883), a Sufi Muslim-Arab born in Mascara who had arrived home from exile in Egypt with his father only months before the first French legionnaires arrived in July 1830. Abd-el Kader was the third of four sons of Sidi-el-Hadji Mahiddin, a marabout (defender of the faith). Abd-el Kader made a pilgrimage to Mecca as a child, and studied Arab philosophy in the schools of Egypt and Morocco. Abd-el Kader “did not forget the body as well as the mind must be disciplined, and turning his attention to physical exercise, he [became], while still a youth, one of the most expert horsemen in Oran, and surpassed all his countrymen in the skill with which he handled the yataghan,” noted one observer. (2)  Alb-de Kader in bournous. Source:
http://www.lyceeabdelkaderbeyrouth.org/Site/Accueil/Images/Kader.jpg; accessed December 20, 2007. 
Napoleon III granting Alb-de Kader his freedom, October 16, 1852. . Source:
http://www.culture.gouv.fr/public/mistral/joconde_fr?ACTION=CHERCHER&FIELD_4=REPR&VALUE_4=ALGERIE%2B&FIELD_10=DREP&VALUE_10=1852%2B OU 1860%2B; accessed December 20, 2007. The painting is at Versailles. “Well and strongly built, tall, erect, and handsome, versed in all the lore that the Arabs held to be worth acquiring, and noted for his soldierly accomplishment, it is not to be wondered at that [Abd-el Kader] drew upon himself the jealous eye of the Dey of Algiers. That potentate immediately decided to rid his domains of this dangerous young man in true Ottoman fashion. Abd-el-Kader saved himself form assassination by fleeing to Egypt with his father. He was yet in exile when the sway of the Turkish Deys, with their janissaries and cruel and oppressive methods of governing, gave way before the French invasion” in July 1830 (see above). (2) At age 23 years, Abd-el Kader became the supreme authority (emir) over 32 tribes in North Africa. (8) For many years, he defeated the French in all their efforts to conquer Algiers. “When least expected, he would appear, as if by magic, at the head of a tribe of followers, seldom outnumbering 5,000 men. The very sight of his white burnous [a long cloak of coarse woolen fabric with a hood, usually white in color, worn by Berbers and Arabs throughout north Africa] blowing in the wind, as he swept down at the head of his men, carried consternation into stout French hearts. The engagement over, new combinations would be made to defeat and capture, new [French] troops would be sent forward, but they would find no enemy. Suddenly would come news of the defeat and discomfiture of brothers in arms of some remote section by this alert enemy…” (8) The fierce power and intelligence Abd-el Kader exuded, and his ability to win battles forced, French General Desmichels to enter into a treaty in 1834 that resulted in spread of Abd-el Kader’s influence. (8) The treaty lasted for about fourteen years. Nevertheless, hostilities kept up, and a “further peace was made with Abd-el Kader in 1837, in which the Arab chieftain recognized the sovereignty of France in return for several important provinces. Abd-el Kader violated the treaty of 1837 on a pretext two and a half years later and made a general attack on the French positions, but the French within the next two years began a campaign so vigorous and bitter that the Arab forces began to lose generally. Abd-el Kader was able, however, to keep up a resistance that lasted five more years and he did not finally surrender to General de Lamoriciere until December 22, 1847. (8) Upon Abd-el Kader’s surrender to the French, Algiers almost immediately yielded to the French without another struggle. (9) In 1844, the French took Abd-el Kader prisoner to Paris, where he speedily received the homage of all brave men throughout Europe. In 1856 Napoleon III, third Emperor of the French and a great admirer of Abd-el Kader, liberated him on condition of his absence for life from Algiers. Napoleon III also granted him a residence in Damascus and an annual stipend for the remainder of his life. (9) Abd-el Kader died in 1883. Authorities of the newly independent Algeria in 1962 moved his remains in 1966 to Algiers for reburial, revering him as one of the founding heroes of the nation. Four Sons of King Louis-Philippe Serve in Algeria King Louis-Philippe’s four sons, the Dukes of Orleans, Nemours, Joinville and Aumale (a fifth son died shortly after birth), each served France fighting the indigenous peoples of Algeria to secure the geography for France. Duc d’Orleans: Oldest son and heir to the French crown, the Duke of Orleans (1810-1842), won a military command in 1835 in the Mascara Expeditionary Force, December 1835. (10). As part of his duties, he visited French patients in hospitals but fell ill himself, and required urgent repatriation to France. He returned to Algeria in 1839 under the command of French Marshal Vallee, who led an expedition through the Pass of the Iron Gates in 1839, which led to a rupture with Emir Abd-el-Kader. By the Treaty of Tafna (signed earlier by both Abd-el-Kader and General Thomas Robert Bugeaud on May 30, 1837, after French imperial forces sustained heavy looses and military reversals in Algeria), the frontier line of the east, beyond which the French were not to trespass, was the road from Algiers to Constantine. The Emir believed that Marshal Vallee and his troops had crossed the line. The Emir declared jihad. The Duke of Orleans stayed with the column, standing among the sharpshooters, and faced the bullets of the Arabs, according to one historian. (11)  Pass through the Iron Gates in Algeria. Source:
http://www.artshopua.com/sub/zoomview/art_print_The_Pass_Iron_Gates_in_Algeria-18423-.html; accessed December 20, 2007. 
Bombardment of Tangier, original engraving of Sotain. Foundation Omar Benjelloun, Marrakech. Source:
http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=fr&u=http://tangier.free.fr/Histoire/f19.html&sa=X&oi=translate&resnum=3&ct=result&prev=/search%3Fq%3D%2522de%2Bjoinville%2522%2Btangier%26hl%3Den%26rls%3Dcom.microsoft:*:IE-SearchBox%26rlz%3D1I7ADBF; accessed December 20, 2007. Once safely in Algiers, the Duke of Orleans praised the troops who had stood up to nature and the Arabs, as noted elsewhere. (11). After returning to France briefly, he again sailed to Algiers in 1840 for a third time because of the resumption of hostilities by Abd-el Kader. The Duke received command of a division as part of the Medeah-Milianah Expeditions of April 1841. (10) The Duc d’Orleans died in a freak accident whence run-away horses threw him from the attached cart in 1842. Duc de Nemours: The second oldest son, the Duke of Nemours (1814-1896), notified the minister of war in October 22, 1836 that he intended to accompany Marshal Clauzel in 1836 with the first group of French troops to Constantine, Algeria, just as his older brother (Duke of Orleans) had attended a similar event in Mascara in 1835 (see above). (11) “The duke of Nemours accompanied Clauzel in this arduous expedition [and] stoically endured the suffering caused by the cold, rain, snow, the bivouac in the mud.” He “advanced at the time of the attack of the city to the first line of sharpshooters, in defiance of any danger. During the painful retreat, he demonstrated kindness towards the soldiers, abandoning his luggage to give a mule over to the ambulance.” (11) The Duke of Nemours returned to France on December 10, 1836, but again set sail for Algeria in 1837, this time with two of his brothers, the Duke of Orleans (see above) and the Duke of Joinville. Because of his previous experience in Constantine, the Duke of Nemours headed a brigade to storm Constantine. He was in charge of command headquarters on October 6, 1837. On October 12, 1837, the duke witnessed the deaths of Governor-General Major General Damremont (killed by a Turkish cannonball) and General Perregaux (killed by a bullet), which made him commander of the siege. He launched the next three columns, which surrounded the city, but failed to take it. (11) On November 3, 1837, the Duke of Nemours bid farewell to his fellow officers, who included, among others, three future marshals of France: Canrobert, MacMahon, and Saint Niel. (12) The duke received a promotion to lieutenant general. While the Duke of Nemours sailed back to France, his younger brother, the Duke of Joinville sailed to Brazil. The Duke of Nemours returned to Algeria a third time in 1841, shortly after General Thomas Robert Bugeaud was appointed governor of Algeria (February 1841), to participate in operations against Abd-el Kader. (12) Disembarking in Algiers in early April 1841, he led the resupply convoys in the Medeah and Milianah Expeditions. He then accompanied General Bugeaud in the province of Oran, where he commanded a division that destroyed supplies for Abd-el Kader, occupied Mascara, and helped push Abd-el Kader westward, out of Algeria and into Morocco. The Duke of Nemours departed for France on June 3, 1941. (12) Duc de Joinville: The third oldest son of King Louis-Philippe, the Duke of Joinville (1818-1900), was a sailor. The Duke of Joinville, posted in Bone, Algeria, asked permission from his commander to join a column marching towards Constantine to provide relief for the troops, which included his brother, the Duke of Nemours, as described above. Joinville arrived too late to witness the assault, but was able to return to Algiers with the Duke of Nemours who commanded the rearguard of the column. Both dukes showed concern for unfortunate soldiers who were suffering from cholera, noted one report. (12) Corpses littered the roads, according to another report. (14) In 1844, the Duke of Joinville participated in the French storming of Morocco, the lair of Abd-el Kader. He commanded the French Naval Squadron that bombarded Tangier, Morocco, in August 1844 as documented in a famous painting by Eugene Delacroix. A French Expeditionary Force battled Arabs in Isly, Morocco, on August 16, 1844. (10,13) The Franco-Moroccan conflict ended on September 10, 1844, with the signing of a peace treaty in the Bay of Tangier. The Duke of Joinville wrote his fine memoirs, which are available elsewhere. (14) Duc d’Aumale: The youngest living son of King Louis-Philippe, the Duc d’Aumale (1822-1897), on January 1, 1839, at age 17 years, entered the French army and landed in Algeria in 1840 to take part in combat training. He returned to France in 1841 because of illness and then returned to Algeria in 1842 with the rank of marshal of camp. He headed a subdivision of the Medeah Expedition (1841-1843) under the command of General Thomas Robert Bugeaud. On May 16, 1843, the expedition captured the smala, or camp, of Abd-el Kader (but not Kader himself), which consisted of an itinerant tribe of some 3,600 people (mostly women, children and servants), a large amount of treasure and a valuable correspondence. For this feat, King Louis-Philippe promoted the Duc d’Aumale a lieutenant-general and appointed him to command the province of Constantine, Algeria. In February and March 1844, the Duc d’Aumale commanded the Constantine Column (while his brother, the Duc of Joinville was bombarding Tangier, Morocco). In 1847, the Duc d’Aumale succeeded Marshal Bugeand as governor-general of Algeria, a position that he occupied until the surrender of Abd-el Kader on December 21, 1847. The onset of the 1848 French revolution drove King Louis-Philippe from office and from France. The Duke de Joinville wrote about the period in his memoir, as follows: “It was clear that another elective regime was about to succeed the one which had just collapsed—one of those modern edifices, all, whatever, may be the name with which they are decorated, tainted with the same original weakness—‘What the majority has made, the majority has the right to unmake.’ In fact—as somebody said in a speech—a perpetually provisional arrangement under these ephemeral forms of rule, our national inferiority in face of other stable and far-sighted governments is flagrantly evident. The sense of duty wears away, devoted service is never given without a mental reservation touching the morrow—that unknown morrow, which checkmates the boldest plans. Thus constituted, such regimes are all alike, and it was not for the princes of the House of France to draw their swords to impose one form of national humiliation rather than another on their country. “When once my father’s rule had disappeared, and with it the unvarying line of duty traced by my absolute filial devotion to him, I watched the establishment of a republican form of government without annoyance, for I preferred its clear distinctness to the complicated combinations which pretended to reconcile two opposite principles by putting handcuffs on them both. “Like many others, too, I did not doubt that the shock of revolution would soon bring on a general war. Under such circumstances, it would have been a crime to add the pangs of civil strife to the dangers threatening our country. “Thenceforward, my duty lay clear before me, My country first of all! That watchword still exists, thank God, to guide those who yet can love their country whatever may befall them. When once my first fit of indignation was over, then, I did not think of returning from Africa, sword in hand, to set up the throne again [i.e., put his father back on the throne by military and naval means]. I contented myself with sending a very commonplace dispatch to Arago, and then I utilized the last days I was to spend on French soil in studying the defensive works ordered by my brother [Duc d’Aumale] in view of that war, imminent perhaps, during which, soldiers before all as we were, we expected, in the illusive hopes of our youth, to be allowed to keep our place as fighting men. “The moment came at last when our [Dukes de Joinville and d’Aumale] presence at Algiers became incompatible with the existence of a revolutionary government in Paris, and we had to rejoin our family in their foreign exile. We decided, Aumale and I, to embark for England on board the dispatch-boat Solon, Commander Jaures. It was with heavy hearts, though proud ones, that we went down the Rue de la Marine, under the salutes of the forts, and accompanied to the last by the whole body of officers, both naval and military, so many of them our old friends and faithful comrades. “Thirty years of my life had been spent in France. In spite of the gnawing worm of revolution, my family left her intact, prosperous, respected, with magnificent armies, both land and sea, and a no less magnificent colony [Algeria]. I was not to see my country again for two-and twenty years, and then in all the horror of invasion and dismemberment and the terror of the Commune.” (16) Summary The French initially moved slowly and tentatively into Algeria with an unclear mission of dealing with the Dey of Algiers. The longer they were there, however, the lovelier the prize of Algeria became. Once they defeated the great Sufi fighter-leader Abl-de Kader in late 1847, resistance in Algeria dissolved. The next step for the French was to populate the sparsely settled country with European settlers who could produce agricultural products such as wines for French and other markets. Sources:
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